Aiutarli a difendersi. Cosa funziona e cosa no Dal mito alla realtà Alessandro Fiocchi – Sergio Arrigoni Melloni Pediatria, Milano • Care for a clean environment. • Consider minor immunomodulators • The evidences for immunostimulation Health impact of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in Italy Patologia Basso peso alla nascita SIDS Numero di casi stimati 2033 87 Infezioni vie aeree < 2 anni 77.000 Asma 27.000 Sintomi respiratori cronici 48.000 Otite media sierosa 64.000 Forastiere F. Epidemiol Prev. 2002; 26:18-29 “Io fumo solo in balcone dottore!” • Numerosi studi dimostrano che anche quando i genitori dicono di fumare all’aperto l’esposizione del bambino al fumo passivo non viene ridotta. • Perché? Johansson A et al. Indoor and outdoor smoking: impact on children's health. Eur J Public Health. 2003; 13:61-6 Nelson R. Smoking outside still causes second-hand smoke exposure to children.Lancet 2002;359:1675 Bahcecilier N. Parental smoking behaviour and the urinary cotinine level of asthmatic children. J Asthma 1999;36:171-5 Air pollution and mortality Inquinante Incremento mortalità PM10 + 5% mortalità post-neonatale per qualsiasi causa 1 PM10 +22% mortalità post-neonatale per cause respiratorie 1 PM10 + 12 % mortalità per cause respiratorie in ↓ SES 2 Lacasana M. Exposure to ambient air pollution and prenatal and early childhood health effects. Eur J Epidemiol. 2005;20:183-99. Erbas B. Air pollution and childhood asthma emergency hospital admissions:estimating intra-city regional variations. Int J Environ Health Res. 2005;15:11-20 Air pollution and morbidity Inquinante Incremento ricoveri PM10 Bronchiti < 4 anni Polmoniti <4 anni Asma <14 anni 1 PM2.5 - PM10 Asma <15 anni 2 PM2.5 Bronchiti < 4 anni Polmoniti <4 anni Asma <14 anni 1 NO2 Bronchiti < 4 anni Polmoniti <4 anni Asma <14 anni 1 SO2 Bronchiti < 4 anni Polmoniti <4 anni Asma <15 anni 1,2 CO Asma <15 anni 1 Lin M. Coarse particulate matter and hospitalization for respiratory infections in children younger than 15 years in Toronto: a case-crossover analysis. Pediatrics. 2005;116:e235-40 Erbas B. Air pollution and childhood asthma emergency hospital admissions:estimating intra-city regional variations. Int J Environ Health Res. 2005;15:11-20 PM10 ed accessi in PS per sintomi respiratori R2 = 0.28; P < 0.02 PM10 mcg/m3 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 -20 0 50 100 150 200 250 -40 Numero accessi respiratori Caddeo A. Impatto dell’esposizione al PM10 sulla frequenza di visite per patologie respiratorie in un pronto soccorso pediatrico. Dal Mito alla Realtà, 31 gennaio – 1 febbraio 2008 Air pollution and morbidity Is there association between short-term exposure to ultrafine particles and morbidity in Copenhagen, Denmark? NCtot (6-700 nm in diameter) in 2001 – 2004 vs. hospital admissions due to asthma in children (5-18 years) PM10 vs. PM2.5 vs. ambient gasses NO2 and PM2.5 > PM10 for pediatric asthma Traffic sources are related with paediatric asthma attacks Andersen ZJ. Size distribution and total number concentration of ultrafine and accumulation mode particles and hospital admissions in children and the elderly in Copenhagen, Denmark. Occup Environ Med. 2007 Nov 7; [Epub ahead of print] Fungal levels in the home and lower respiratory tract illnesses in the first year of life RR Any LRI LRI without wheeze LRI with wheeze Male sex 1.64 2.32 1.54 Born in winter 0.65 0.84 0.50 Breastfed ever 0.74 0.54 0.82 Siblings 1.56 1.51 1.82 High fungal levels 1.86 3.88 1.58 Stark PC. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 168:232–7 Regimen Sanitatis Salerni Secolo XI Che l’aria sia pura, • Caput XIV : De aere tersa e luminosa, “ Aere fit purus,fit lucidus, et bene clarus, che neque nonsit,sia infetta infectus nec olens foetore cloacae.” o graveolente. Rinse-free hand sanitizers reduce school absenteism 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 White Dyer Hammond Guinan Thompson Meadows E, Le Saux N. A systematic review of the effectiveness of antimicrobial rinse-free hand sanitizers for prevention of illness-related absenteeism in elementary school children. BMC Public Health. 2004;4:50-7 Pneumonia < 5 years Luby SP. Effect of handwashing on child health: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005;366:225-33 URTIs < 15 years Luby SP. Effect of handwashing on child health: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005;366:225-33 Cough & dyspnoea < 15 years Luby SP. Effect of handwashing on child health: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005;366:225-33 Regimen Sanitatis Salerni Secolo XI Se vuoi vivere • Caput XXIII :De utilitate lotionis manuus sano a lungo lavati spesso leconfert manimunera bina: “ Lotio post mensam tibi mundificat palmas, et lumina redit acuta, si fore vis sanus,ablue saepe manus.” • Care for a clean environment. • Appropriate treatment of minor immunodeficiencies • The evidences for immunostimulation The direct and indirect costs of respiratory infections to the community are substantial • • • • • A health diary from 600 families in Melbourne 80% at least one respiratory episode/15 months 2.2 respiratory episodes / person / year mean episode duration: 6.3 days children < 2 years: - most likely to have at least one respiratory episode - greater number of episodes per person - the longest episode duration (6.8 days) • 28.7% respiratory episodes doctor's visit • 23% time off school Leder K.A community-based study of respiratory episodes in Melbourne. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2003; 27:399-404 Allergic children have more numerous and severe respiratory infections than non-allergic children Number and duration of RI in children with RRI # RI Non allergic (n=71) Allergic (n=46) Total RI # (p=0.0001) 0.94±1.37 1.26 ± 073 Mild RI # (p<0.000001) 0.53±.64 1.02±0.70 Total RI duration (days; p=0.009) 4.85±5.24 8.92±9.64 Mild RI duration (days; p=0.0007) 2.99±3.91 7.82±9.87 Ciprandi G. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2006: 17: 389–91 Respiratory infections in schoolchildren: co-morbidity and risk factors. aOR Otitis media (n=470) Tonsillopharyngitis (n=737) Lower RI (n=275) Female sex 1.2 (1.0-1.5) 1.2 (1.0-1.4) 0.9 (0.7-1.1) Atopy 1.4 (1.1-1.8) 1.4 (1.0-1.7) 2.4 (1.8-3.1) Home dampness 1.2 (1.0-1.5) 1.4 (1.1-1.6) 1.3 (1.0-1.7) Smoking 1.2 (0.9-1.5) 1.1 (0.9-1.3) 1.2 (0.9-1.6) Siblings 1.2 (0.8-1.6) 1.1 (0.8-1.4) 1.0 (0.6-1.4) Karevold G. Arch Dis Child 2006; 91:391–5 Certain children constitute a group with high morbidity Annual incidence of bacterial RTI: Age Group a Group b P 2 yrs 6.2 1.4 < 0.001 7 yrs 3.1 1.2 < 0.01 8 yrs 2.4 0.8 < 0.05 Children with high morbidity are susceptible to RTIs and other illnesses over a long period of years Soderstrom M Respiratory tract infections in children with recurrent episodes as preschoolers. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1991;80:688-95 Recurrent respiratory infections and phagocytosis AIM: do phagocytosis (FAG) and reactive oxygen intermediates (ROI) production deficiencies impact on pediatric RRI? STUDY POPULATION: 90 children with RRI vs, 19 healthy children. RESULTS: FAG and ROI significantly decreased compared to the control values CONCLUSIONS: a possible etiological role of FAG and ROI deficiencies of polymorphonuclear neutrophils in the genesis of pediatric RRI Don M. Recurrent respiratory infections and phagocytosis in childhood. Pediatr Int. 2007;49:40-7 Mannose-binding lectin MBL insufficiency • • • • bacterial infection meningococcal sepsis predispose to HIV infection TB Eisen DP. Impact of mannose-binding lectin on susceptibility to infectious diseases. Clin Infect Dis. 2003; 37:1496-505 Recurrent respiratory infections and immune defects IgG2 subclass deficiency pneumonia, sinusitis, invasive pneumococcal disease IgA deficiency pneumonia, otitis, diarrhoea G2m(n) allotype of IgG2 susceptibility to encapsulated bacteria Fc receptor IIa: H131 high affinity, FcRIIa-R131 low affinity for IgG2 Heterozygotic C2 deficiency in 1%–1.5% of the general population Homozygous deficiency of C4A or C4B in 3% of the population Mannose-binding lectin (MBL2) activates the complement system Bossuyt X. Coexistence of (partial) immune defects and risk of recurrent respiratory infections. Clin Chem. 2007;53:124-30 Recurrent respiratory infections and immune defects Number of (partial) Immune defects Patients (n=55) Control (n=43) 0 6 27 1 20 10 2 21 3 3 8 1 Bossuyt X. Coexistence of (partial) immune defects and risk of recurrent respiratory infections. Clin Chem. 2007;53:124-30 Ribosomial Immunotherapy Natural Vector Specific antigens Adjuvant Immunostimulant Specific Immune response Aspecific Immune Response Ribosomial Immunotherapy Ribosome Epitopes Natural Vector Specific antigens Adjuvant Specific Immune response Proteoglicans Immunostimulant Aspecific Immune Response Microbiology Extraction Purification Conjugation Sterile conditioning The ribosome 8 nm X 14 nm 30 S 50 S 16 nm • Care for a clean environment. • Consider minimal immunodeficiences • The evidences for immunostimulation Levels of evidence Level I a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (RCT) Level I b at least one RCT Level II a at least one controlled study without randomisation Level II b at least one other type of study Level III non-experimental descriptive studies Level IV expert committee reports or opinions or clinical experience of respected authorities Shekelle PG. Clinical guidelines: Developing guidelines. BMJ, 1999; 318: 593 -6 Immunoistimulants and ARTIs: a meta-analysis DATA SOURCES: Medline, EMBASE databases, and register of Cochrane Acute Respiratory Infection Group REVIEW METHODS: RCTs on the prevention of ARTIs in children Jadad's instrument Berber A.J A meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials on the prevention of respiratory tract infections in children using immunostimulants. Investig Allergol Clin Immunol. 2001; 1: 235-46 Mean percent reduction of ARTIs Ahrens - BV Gomez-Barreto – BV Jara – BV Maestroni – BV Schaad – BV Zagar – BV Careddu – pidotimod Motta – pidotimod Arroyave - biostim Pauoe – biostim Pech - biostim Piquet - biostim Vautel – immucytal Fiocchi – Immucytal Karan – thymomodulin Scholer – thymomodulin Global Berber A.J. Investig Allergol Clin Immunol. 2001; 1: 235-46 Immunostimulants and ARTIs: a meta-analysis RESULTS: Four of five RCTs with Jadad's score > 3 showed significant reduction of ARTIs in immunostimulant groups - 42.64%, (95% confidence - 45.19 / - 40.08%); - 60% mean number of ARTIs in treated vs. placebo group. CONCLUSIONS: immunostimulants are an effective treatment for the prevention of ARTI. Further high-quality RCTs are required Berber A.J A meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials on the prevention of respiratory tract infections in children using immunostimulants. Investig Allergol Clin Immunol. 2001; 1: 235-46 Immunostimulants for preventing respiratory tract infection in children. 1. ISs reduce the incidence of ARTIs in children by 40% on average 2. Heterogeneity and poor quality of the trials 3. Safety profile is good 4. Further high-quality trials are needed Del Rio-Navarro BE. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(4):CD004974. Levels of evidence Level I a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (RCT) Level I b at least one RCT Level II a at least one controlled study without randomisation Level II b at least one other type of study Level III non-experimental descriptive studies Level IV expert committee reports or opinions or clinical experience of respected authorities Shekelle PG. Clinical guidelines: Developing guidelines. BMJ, 1999; 318: 593 -6 Placebo-controlled RCT randomization active treatment run-in placebo Immucytal in children with otitis media + URTIs - Trial: Double-blind placebo study over 6 months - 84 children aged 4-14 years with otitis media with at least 2 years of recurrent or chronic respiratory tract infections, and/or at least 3 episodes requiring doctor visit and treatment during previous winter - Assessment criteria: - Frequency, duration, severity of otitis - Hearing test MorainR. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2002;63:1-8 Pr Fiocchi - RRTIs Children: 43 Definition and interest of Immucytal in children with otitis media + URTIs Results - Reduction infectious episodes by 50% - Reduction by 50% episode duration - 62 % vs. 21% patients ameliorated at hearing tests (p > 0.001) 62% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Immucytal Placebo Mora R. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2002;63:1-8 Levels of evidence Level I a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (RCT) Level I b at least one RCT Level II a at least one controlled study without randomisation Level II b at least one other type of study Level III non-experimental descriptive studies Level IV expert committee reports or opinions or clinical experience of respected authorities Shekelle PG. Clinical guidelines: Developing guidelines. BMJ, 1999; 318: 593 -6 Levels of evidence Level I a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (RCT) Level I b at least one RCT Level II a at least one controlled study without randomisation Level II b at least one other type of study Level III non-experimental descriptive studies Level IV expert committee reports or opinions or clinical experience of respected authorities Shekelle PG. Clinical guidelines: Developing guidelines. BMJ, 1999; 318: 593 -6 Efficacy of Ribomunyl® in children with RRTIs & bronchospasm – Patients: 338 children (range:4-17y) with recurrent respiratory tract infections and bronchospasm – Treatment: Ribomunyl® for 7 months – Assessment criteria: • Change in clinical score • Immunological parameters (D0, M4, M7) • Plasma IgG, IgA & IgM levels; plasma bacterial strainspecific IgE • T-lymphocyte counts Hofman JA. Efficacy in Children: RRTIs and bronchospastic symptoms. Pr Fiocchi - RRTIs in 47 Abstract XXI Congress of EAACI, 2002 Definition and interest 616, of Efficacy of Ribomunyl® in children with RRTIs & bronchospasm - Clinical results: • 62% in severity score • 71% in antibiotic use • 76% in RRTI - Immunological parameters: in line with clinical improvement • Signif. sp IgE against bacterial antigen from M4 till M7 P<0.001) • Signif. IgA from M4 till M7 (P<0.05) • Signif. IgG and IgM at M7 (P<0.05) • Signif. total T lymphocytes at M7 (P<0.05) Conclusions: Ribomunyl reduces RRTIs in children with bronchospastic symptoms. Ribomunyl reduces sIgE Efficacy in RRTIs and bronchospastic symptoms. PrHofman Fiocchi -JA. RRTIs in Children: 48 Abstract 616, XXI Congress of EAACI, 2002 Definition and interest of Levels of evidence Level I a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (RCT) Level I b at least one RCT Level II a at least one controlled study without randomisation Level II b at least one other type of study Level III non-experimental descriptive studies Level IV expert committee reports or opinions or clinical experience of respected authorities Shekelle PG. Clinical guidelines: Developing guidelines. BMJ, 1999; 318: 593 -6 Ribosomal immunostimulation DATA SOURCES: review of studies [1983 – 2003] of 3 and 6 months' duration comprising part of the international registration file CASELOAD: Nineteen RCTs 2117 patients (1215 children and 902 adults) Ribosomal immunostimulant n = 1062 Placebo n = 1055 Bellanti J. Ribosomal immunostimulation: assessment of studies evaluating its clinical relevance in the prevention of upper and lower respiratory tract infections in children and adults. BioDrugs. 2003; 17: 355-67. Ribosomal immunostimulation 3 months’ duration Number of recurrences Duration of infection Antibacterial requirement ENT - 27-68% - 28-66% -29-60% Otitis media - 10-53% - 16-56% - 18-47% ENT + LTRI - 32-61% These results clearly demonstrate that ribosomal immunostimulant is effective in preventing and in reducing upper and lower respiratory tract infections in children and adults Bellanti J. Ribosomal immunostimulation: assessment of studies evaluating its clinical relevance in the prevention of upper and lower respiratory tract infections in children and adults. BioDrugs. 2003; 17: 355-67 Conclusioni 1. Il problema delle IRR ha un notevole peso sul bambino, sulla famiglia e sulla società in termini di morbilità, qualità della vita, costi sociali ed economici 2. Esistono bambini che sia per fattori immunologici che per stile e condizioni di vita hanno un rischio aumentato di IRR 3. E’ possibile influire sullo stile di vita per ridurre il rischio di IRR 4. L’efficacia degli immunomodulatori è validato da diverse metanalisi 5. E’ auspicabile un utilizzo integrato di interventi volti a modificare lo stile di vita “ a rischio” insieme ad un uso mirato dei modulatori della risposta immune