A10
292
Alfredo Vena
The Nineteenth–Century
Italian Clarinet Tradition
and its Revaluation
The case of Ernesto Cavallini
Copyright © MMVII
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No part of this book may be reproduced in any form,
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1st edition: September 2007
To my family
5
6
Music is no illusion, but rather a
revelation. Its triumphant power
lies in the fact that it reveals to us
beauties we find in no other sphere
and the apprehension of them is
not transitory, but a perpetual
reconcilement to life.
Tchaikovsky
7
8
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I am grateful to Joan Enric Lluna who has
broadened my musical horizons and stimulated my professional
growth as a clarinettist during the course of my studies at Trinity College of Music in London. I also wish to thank Karl Lutchmayer for his
patient guidance and valuable suggestions in reviewing earlier drafts
of this work.
Special thanks also go to Paul Goodey, Head of Wind, Brass and
Percussion Faculty at Trinity College of Music, London whose suggestions have always encouraged me to set and pursue higher artistic
standards. Thanks are also due to all those at the Conservatorium of
Music “S. Giacomantonio” in Cosenza, Italy and at the Faculty of
Music, University of Melbourne, Australia who have supported my
professional development at different stages of my music career.
Last but not least, I am particularly grateful to the staff at the British Library in London for always being available and helpful during
the time l was carrying out my case–study research.
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10
Contents
Preface .........................................................................................
13
Introduction.................................................................................
15
Part 1. Cavallini the Versatile
1.1. Setting up the case study ..................................................
1.2. Cavallini’s versatile life ...................................................
19
20
Part 2. Cavallini the Inspirer ........................................................
23
Part 3. Cavallini the Performer ...................................................
33
3.1 Main organological differences and similarities between
Central Europe and Italy ...................................................
37
Part 4. The Composer .................................................................
45
4.1. Cavallini’s Output ............................................................
4.2. Romances .........................................................................
4.3. Fantasias ...........................................................................
4.4. Concertos ..........................................................................
46
46
48
49
11
12
Contents
Part 5. The Instructor ...................................................................
55
Conclusions ..................................................................................
65
Bibliography ..................................................................................
71
Preface
The present work attempts to demonstrate the value of the nineteenth–century Italian clarinet tradition, based on evidence that Italy
produced an amazing number of virtuoso instrumental performers belonging to an identifiable heritage yet separate from the European
mainstream.
In challenging the widespread belief that clarinet tradition is predominantly grounded in France and Germany, research based on a
case study on the Italian clarinet virtuoso Ernesto Cavallini (1807–
18749 is presented.
The main aim of the case study is to explore four identified facets
of Cavallini’s figure, namely, the Inspirer, the Performer, the Composer and the Instructor. Focus is placed on each of the four facets in
the attempt to offer insights into the distinctive style of the Italian
clarinet virtuosity and into the character of national identity it embodies. At the same time, the case study provides an in–depth understanding of how the musical and technical demands of this repertoire were
achieved despite the distinctive technical and mechanical features of
the nineteenth–century Italian clarinet, which suggest a lagging–
behind its northern counterparts. In particular, comparisons between
Italy and Germany and references to France and England serve the
purpose of outlining specific Italian traits amidst the European commonalities.
By focusing on the eclectic figure of Cavallini and by analyzing his
various facets in detail, the case study highlights those predominantly
unique aspects of this great musician who reflected the nineteen–
century clarinet school. In so doing, the case study argues how both
Cavallini and the Italian clarinet school of his time reveal distinctive,
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14
Preface
often unique, features which elevate the Italian tradition to the prestigiously renowned levels of France and Germany.
Conclusions are subsequently drawn on the importance of revaluating the Italian clarinet tradition and of placing it in its true context
within the European mainstream.
Introduction
If this word «music» is sacred and
reserved for eighteenth and nineteenth century instruments, we can
substitute a more meaningful
term: organization of sound.
John Cage
Currently, when referring to the clarinet history and tradition,
immediate links and associations are made to the countries of
France and Germany. The clarinet, however, played a very important and determinant role in nineteenth–century Italy, where it rapidly became an extremely popular solo instrument as well as being
used in a coloratura role to support female voices in operatic performance.
Italy’s nineteenth–century clarinettists, whilst lagging behind their
northern counterparts in the adoption of mechanical and technical developments, were nonetheless capable of a surprising ability and as
Pamela Weston (1995:96) claims «[…] were given a role by their
composers complementary to that of the prima donna»1. In the light of
this view, it is worth challenging the widespread belief that clarinet
tradition is predominantly grounded in France and Germany so as to
1
In Colin Lawson, ed., The Cambridge Companion to the Clarinet, Cambridge University
Press, 1995.
15
16
Intruducion
revaluate the Italian clarinet tradition and place it in its true context
within the European mainstream.
The present volume attempts to demonstrate the value of the nineteenth–century Italian clarinet tradition, highlighting the number of
virtuoso instrumental performers of individual and style of playing,
but with a common ground. Outstanding among them were Liverani,
Sebastiani and Cavallini2, but the importance of the Italian influence in
terms of virtuosity has been underestimated. Little research has been
carried out to shed light on Italy’s nineteenth–century clarinettists’ surprising agility and on the role attributed to them by their composers.
It is, therefore, worth attempting to grasp an understanding of how
the musical and technical demands of this repertoire were achieved
despite the distinctive technical and mechanical features of the nineteenth–century Italian clarinet, which determine its lagging–behind
northern counterparts.
In this view, the present volume features a case study of the Italian clarinet virtuoso Ernesto Cavallini, defined by Henry Lazarus
(1815–95) «the Paganini of the clarinet»3 for his prodigious technique. Initially, it touches on this electic figure providing brief biographical data in order to contextualize the Italian virtuoso in the
musical scenario of his time. Specifically, the case study devotes an
individual part to each of the four facets identified in Cavallini’s
eclectic figure in the attempt to bring to surface the distinctive style
of the Italian clarinet virtuosity and the character of national identity
embedded and expressed by «the Paganini of the clarinet». In addition, throughout the volume specific Italian traits amidst the European commonalities are outlined and compared to German ones,
while references are made to French and English traits to cover the
entire scenario of the time.
Thus, the volume is articulated in five parts. Part 1 sets the scene,
briefly highlighting the reasons which led to the choice of researching
Cavallini and introducing his eclectic and versatile life.
2
Cfr. The Italian Clarinettist: Colin Bradbury (clarinet), Oliver Davies (piano). Note by
Pamela Weston and Oliver Davies, 1983.
3
Cited in Pamela Weston, Clarinet Virtuosi of the Past, London: Novello & Co. Ltd,
1971, p. 202.
Intruducion
17
The main objective of Part 2, dedicated to Cavallini the Inspirer, is
to demonstrate how the Italian clarinet tradition achieved enormous
popularity in Europe, regardless of the lack of Italian nineteenth–
century clarinet masterworks4. In this way, on the one hand, the fruitful history of the composer–virtuoso partnership present in the central
European scenario is discussed; on the other, a brief socio–political
and musical analysis of nineteenth–century Italy will underline the
reasons leading to the predominance of Opera in this country. In turn,
this leads to understanding why instrumental music was relegated to a
secondary role. Then, the case of Cavallini will be taken into
consideration, with particular focus on Verdi’s operatic solos and
Panizza’s work, which were inspired by the Italian virtuoso.
Part 3 deals with Cavallini the Performer and outlines the reasons
behind the urge of revaluating the Italian clarinet school in comparison to the German and French ones. An organological overview is
traced in order to pinpoint the essential differences between Italy and
Central Europe. Furthermore, the use of the clarinet in the orchestra is
discussed to show an Italian superiority in the art of transposition.
In Part 4, two main issues related to Cavallini the Composer are
tackled. Firstly, a brief overview of Cavallini’s compositions is provided. Then, attention is drawn to the reasons which induced the same
compositions. A brief discussion on the main stylistic features which
characterized Cavallini’s work conclude this part and complement
the previous one as a further document which reveals his genuine
virtuosity.
Cavallini the Instructor is examined in Part 5, enabling to continue
the discussion on the main distinctive stylistic features of Cavallini’s
composition with a pedagogical slant. Such analysis inevitably leads to
a salient pedagogical aspect of nineteenth–century Italian clarinet tradition, namely, the reed–above embouchure practice. The embouchure,
considered as the basis of the art of wind playing, has survived to present as the reed–below embouchure, although the alternative reed–
above position, whereby the reed sits under the top lip, was practised in
4
With the exception of Gioacchino Rossini’s Introduction, Theme and Variations (1819–
1820).
Intruducion
18
nineteenth–century Italy5. The technical aspects of embouchure will
then be considered both through a general European overview and by illustrating the issues in Italy. The richness and diversity offered by the
reed–above embouchure are examined through the cases of Ferdinando
Sebastiani, Ferdinando Busoni and Ernesto Cavallini.
Finally, conclusions are drawn on the opportunity of revaluating
the Italian clarinet tradition in the hope that the present work may shed
new light on Italy’s position in the European scenario.
5
David Charlton, Classical clarinet technique: documentary approaches, Early Music 16/3
(1988), pp. 396–406.
Part 1
Cavallini the Versatile
Music is the mediator between the
spiritual and the sensual life.
Ludwig van Beethoven
1.1. Setting up the case study
There are certainly numerous academic reasons and purposes for
conducting case–study research. In the field of music performance and
as musicians, we are summoned to accomplish our primary goal of
playing and expressing music. To do so, we often look up to the great
talents who have set artistic standards. Gaining a historical perspective
of the virtuosity of clarinet performers, for instance, means becoming
fully aware of the degree of devotion they had to their art, understanding their distinctive qualities and how they have affected the present
way of performing. Carrying out case–study research on the prodigious talent of outstanding clarinettists implies gaining a deeper insight into their contribution to the field. Ultimately, doing case–study
research ought to be a need felt by all musicians striving to improve
their performance skills and their level of artistry.
In this view, the present case–study research stemmed from the
urge of combining my academic studies in music with the goal of improving my profession of clarinettist. The choice of Ernesto Cavallini
is due not only to the extremely high level of his artistry and eclectism, admired by such masters as Rossini and Verdi, but also derives
19
Part 1
20
from a sense of national identity and pride. The technical and musical
challenges that Cavallini faced and brilliantly overcame have been at
long underestimated in the European mainstream.
According to Fetis (1988:18):
The essential qualities of Cavallini’s talent are a prodigious facility of technique (even) in the most complicated passages, a fluency which borders on
the miraculous, good intonation in spite of the defects of the old six–keyed
clarinet which he has used for many years, and lastly breath control which is
seemingly inexhaustible.
As one of the most popular nineteenth–century French music critics
of his time, Fetis conveys the high admiration and reputation achieved
by Cavallini across Europe, thanks to his extraordinary virtuosity. For
this reason, this case study will emphasize how this virtuoso embraced
and reflected the most relevant traits of the nineteenth–century Italian
clarinet tradition in his art, best representing the versatile musician.
Indeed, D’Alessandro (1995:44) describes Cavallini as «una figura
completa di esecutore, compositore e didatta, perfettamente inserita
nel panorama musicale europeo del suo tempo» (a complete figure
embracing the performer, the composer and the instructor, perfectly
integrated in the European musical scenario of his time).
However, Cavallini’s remarkable versatility can only be fully appreciated by gaining an understanding of the salient events in his life.
1.2. Cavallini’s versatile life (milan, 30 aug. 1807 – 7 jan. 1874)
Ernesto Cavallini was a student at Milan’s Conservatoire from
1816 to 1824 under the guide of Benedetto Carulli (1797–1877), «che
può a ragione definirsi il fondatore della scuola clarinettistica milanese»1 (who can rightly be defined the founder of the Milan clarinet
school). In 1830, he performed at the Conservatoire concerts in the
Canobbiana Theatre and shortly after, became solo clarinet at La Fenice in Venice. On his return to Milan in 1832, he was second clarinet
1
In Maurizio D’Alessandro, Virtuosi Italiani di clarinetto dell’Ottocento: Ernesto Cavallini, available at www.progettophoenix.it/virtu–st.htm (Accessed 22 January 2007).
Cavallini the Versatile
21
at La Scala with Carulli playing first. After an extensive tour around
Italy and at the end of Carulli’s exceptionally long tenure of professorship (1816–1871), Cavallini took over the post of principal clarinet
at La Scala, which was now led by his brother Eugenio (1806–1881)2.
At this time, he became friends with Mercadante, writing an Andante and Variations on a theme of the composer’s and also dedicating
Six Grand Duos to him. Rossini was a great admirer of Cavallini and
so was Verdi, who wrote all his big clarinet solos with Cavallini in
mind3 4. Previously he toured extensively around Europe (Vienna,
1839; Paris, 1842; London, 1842 and 1845; Geneva, 1844, Brussels,
1845), invariably playing his own compositions, and dedications on
the many works he wrote. In Vienna, he surprised his audience with
his use of a primitive six–keyed clarinet; in London he performed for
the Philarmonic Society, amazing his audience for his technique and
inexhaustible breath5. In 1842, he performed to Queen Victoria in
London and nine years later, Cavallini relinquished his post at La
Scala to travel as a virtuoso. He first went as far as Brazil, playing at
the Teatro Provisório in Rio de Janiero. Returning across Europe, his
goal now being Russia, he performed in a concert organised by Berlioz in Karlsruhe in 18536. Immediately afterwards, Cavallini headed
for St. Petersburg, Russia where at the age of 45, he established his
residence for the next eighteen years. Appointed as solo clarinettist to
the Tsar Alexander II, Cavallini also joined the St. Petersburg Conservatoire (1862) as first clarinet professor upon invitation from the Conservatoire founder, Anton Rubenstein7. Whilst in Russia, Cavallini
also took up teaching and he composed five albums of French and
Italian songs, as well as three albums for clarinet and piano8. He
adopted Russian citizenship and eventually played only the important
solos at the Imperial Opera. He returned to Milan in 1870 and was ap2
Cfr. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musician; second edition edited by
Stanley Sadie, vol. 5 Canon–Classic. Pamela Weston, “Ernesto Cavallini”, p. 313.
3
Pamela Weston, More Clarinet Virtuosi of the Past, London: Halstan e Co. Ltd, 1977,
pp. 68–69.
4
Cfr. Part 2 on Cavallini the Inspirer.
5
Cfr. Part 3 on Cavallini the Performer.
6
Ibis pp. 68–69.
7
Cfr. Part 5 on The Instructor.
8
Cfr. Part 4 on Cavallini the Composer.
22
Part 1
pointed deputy professor at the Milan Conservatoire where he taught
until his death.
Being one of the best exponents of the Italian clarinet tradition,
Cavallini, consequently, was also a main source of inspiration for Operatic composers as well as for those of instrumental music, as will be
demonstrated in Part 2.
Part 2
Cavallini the Inspirer
The artist must yield himself to his
own inspiration, and if he has a
true talent, no one knows and feels
better than he what suits him. I
should compose with utter confidence a subject that set my blood
going, even though it were condemned by all other artists as antimusical. Success is impossibe for
me if I cannot write as my heart
dictates.
Giuseppe Verdi
While the world of the violinist–composer may be justly regarded as
a history of individualists, the clarinet world seems to have recorded a
history of friendships, so much that the clarinet’s repertoire seems to
have depended on this type of partnership: composer–virtuoso1. The
most obvious cases are represented by outstanding clarinettists such as
Mozart’s Anton Stadler, Spohr’s Simon Hermstedt, Weber’s Heinrich
Baermann, where as a special case is represented by the Italian
Ernesto Cavallini, who dominated the nineteenth century Italian clarinet world.
1
Cfr. Lawson, op. cit., p. 80.
23
Part 2
24
In the central–European tradition, all the greatest clarinet masterworks are closely linked with a strict and dual collaboration between composer and performer. The celebrated association between
Mozart and Anton Stadler (1753–1812) began at least as early as
1784, and resulted with the composition of one of the greatest
clarinet concertos.
In 1791, in fact, Mozart wrote his superb Clarinet Concerto K622
for Anton Stadler, who, at the time, had a reputation of a celebrated
clarinettist and basset horn player. From about 1787, Stadler owned a
B–flat and an A clarinet with an extended compass to low C, and Mozart wrote specifically for him and these instruments2. Stadler’s new
invented clarinet, in fact, inspired Mozart’s Quintet K581 (1789),
Concerto K622 (1791), as well as the clarinet and basset horn obligatos in La Clemenza di Tito (1791).
The violinist–composer Louis Spohr owed his understanding of the
clarinet’s possibilities to his association with the virtuoso player
Simon Hermstedt (1778–1846). In fact, this long and fruitful relationship produced the following works: Alruna Variations (1809); Poutpourri op.80 (1811), Fantasie und Variationen op.81 (1814) and the
four concertos: the first three for the B–flat clarinet (op. 26, 1808; op.
57, 1810; F minor, 1821) and the last for A (E minor, 1828). These
concertos had an important role within the clarinet history. On the one
hand, they furthered the careers of both Hermsted as a virtuoso and
Spohr as a composer; on the other hand, they enlarged the clarinet’s
technique with their challenging runs, similar to violin passages3 . This
is especially evident in the first concerto op.26 (1809) because, as
stated in Spohr’s preface, it required an eleven–key instrument in order to be performed, at a time when five– or six–keyed clarinets were
the most common and used instruments. However, the relationship between the organological development of the clarinet and its link with
the rise of the virtuoso players will be discussed in detail in Part 3
dedicated to Cavallini the Performer.
2
Cfr. Albert R. Rice, The Clarinet in the Classical Period, New York: Oxford University
Press, 2003, p. 160.
3
Ibis, p. 168.
Cavallini the Inspirer
25
Carl Maria von Weber’s works are among the best known and
loved in the nineteenth–century clarinet repertoire. The two concertos
are magnificent works, which may fairly be regarded as second to
Mozart’s great concerto4. Weber wrote his clarinet concertino op.26,
and his two concertos (op.73 in F minor; op.74 in E–flat major) for
Heinrich Baermann in 1811, inspired by his uniform quality of tone
between high and low notes5.
As abovementioned, the German clarinet tradition, prior to and during Cavallini’s life, had always been based on these strong and fruitful
composer–virtuoso partnerships. Besides, after Cavallini’s death
(1874), one of the most important relationships of this kind occurred:
Richard Muhlfeld (1856–1907) was the inspiration for all the great
clarinet masterworks composed by Johann Brahms such as the Trio
op. 114 (1891), Clarinet Quintet op. 115 (1891) and the two great
Clarinet Sonatas op. 120 (1894).
However, Cavallini was a special case, certainly neither inferior
technically nor musically to his central–European counterparts. Nevertheless, none of the great composers of the time wrote any concertos
or sonatas for him. How can this be explained? It is worth focussing
further on the issue to gain a deeper insight into the facet of Cavallini
the Inspirer.
This phenomenon is linked with the particular social and political
situation of nineteen–century Italy, which indirectly influenced the
musical life of the country. In nineteenth–century Italy, the social
ideal of romanticism was strongly permeated and conditioned by its
political counterpart. The Risorgimento, i.e., the uprise, with its moti
carbonari or nationalist revolts, was the expression of the struggling
attempt to free a fragmented country from foreign oppression and
domination which had threatened the roots of Italianness for years.
Historical figures such as Giuseppe Mazzini, Camillo Benso di Cavour
and Giuseppe Garibaldi paved the way to a historical turning point in
Italy’s unstable situation, achieving popular sovereignty, democracy
and, above all, the unity of Italy, which was accomplished in 1861.
According to Rosselli (1991): «Educated Italy, therefore, became what
4
5
Lawson, op. cit., p. 80.
Rice, op. cit., p. 173.
26
Part 2
it has been ever since, one of the most eclectic of nations, ready to absorb artistic and intellectual influences from all over the world»6.
The nineteenth–century Italian musical world was dominated by
Opera while instrumental music, completely influenced by it, could
have been defined minor in comparison to the universal popularity
achieved by Italian Opera7. However, the musical genre of Opera must
be located in the context of nineteenth–century society to fully understand the customs and lifestyle it mirrored.
During the early part of the century, bourgeois and literates attended opera houses on a regular basis (four/five times per week) not
so much being interested in the opera pieces performed as more considering the venue a social gathering point where social status could
be emphasized, where social activities (eating, drinking, gambling)
occurred. In particular, during the first half of the century, the audience was mostly pleased with the Italian melodic tradition more than
showing appreciation for the Viennese (Mozart, Beethoven) repertoire. Therefore, it was natural for players to use melodies from the
operas as a basis for their own fantasies and according to Rosselli:
«Opera was the main business of early nineteenth–century Italian orchestras»8.
Consequently, the great Italian composers (Rossini, Bellini, Verdi,
etc.) concentrated their activity almost exclusively on Opera, being the
only way to achieve both popularity and economic independence at
the time. Nonetheless, Ernesto Cavallini’s technical wizardry and musical mastery was an inspiration both for Operatic composers as well
as for instrumental music, although it played a minor role in nineteen–
century Italy.
Interestingly, according to John Cipolla (1997): «two of Cavallini’s
greatest fans were Rossini and Verdi, proving, in this way, the ex
6
John Rosselli , Music and Musicians in 19th–century Italy, London: Batsford Ltd., 1991,
pp. 14–15.
7
Italian instrumental music achieved international recognition only at the beginning of the
twentieth century with Respighi’s tone poems: Fountains of Rome (1916), Pines of Rome
(1924) and Roman Festivals (1928).
8
Rosselli, op. cit., p. 51.
Cavallini the Inspirer
27
treme value of Cavallini’s artistry»9. Therefore, Cavallini was a central
figure in the nineteenth–century musical world and he had strong relationships with both Rossini and Verdi as substantiated by
D’Alessandro (1998):
la stima e il rapporto con Rossini e Verdi, testimoniati dal tono confidenziale
delle lettere, contribuirono non poco a quella sorta di legame fra esecutore e
compositore nel quale il sottile scambio di idee e di esperienze musicali trovarono perfetto equilibrio nelle composizioni degli ultimi due10 (the close relationship with Rossini and Verdi, proved by the confidential style of the letters, contributed to create that sort of link between performer and composer
in which the small exchange of musical ideas and experiences found the right
balance in the compositions of the latter).
Subsequently, on the one hand, Cavallini’s talent inspired Rossini and Verdi; on the other the clarinet virtuoso received opinions
and advice on his own compositions, from the two great Italian
composers.
According to D’Alessandro (1998):
Tutti i soli obbligati che si trovano nelle opere di Verdi, sono stati scritti pensando alle rilevanti capacità espressive e alla bravura di Cavallini, così come
quest’ultimo sottoponeva le sue fantasie, le arie, le variazioni, frutto di geniale estro compositivo, agli stessi compositori11 (All the solos within Verdi’s
operas were written under the influence of Cavallini’s expressiveness and
mastery, in the same way as Cavallini used to show all his fantasias, arias,
variations, resulting from his creative vein, to the composers).
Indeed, in 1852, Cavallini found himself in St. Petersburg while
Verdi was staging La Forza del Destino, and it was the Italian virtuoso himself who inspired the composer to write the moving prelude
for the clarinet at the beginning of Act Three which introduces the
9
John Cipolla, Historical Perspectives of Excellence for the Clarinetist, 1997, available at
www.clarinetdepot.com/articles/cipolla2.htm (accessed 21 January 2007).
10
Maurizio D’Alessandro, Virtuosi Italiani di clarinetto dell’800: Ernesto Cavallini, 1998,
[online]. Here the author is referring to the relationship between Ernesto Cavallini and the two
Italian composers Giocchino Rossini and GiuseppeVerdi.
11
D’Alessandro, op. cit.
28
Part 2
scene and romanza of Don Alvaro La vita è inferno all’infelice and O
tu che in seno agli angeli12.
Therefore, the date 10th November 1852 represents the climax of
Cavallini the Inspirer: Verdi’s La Forza del Destino was given its
premiere at the Imperial Opera in St. Petersburg, and Cavallini played
the famous third Act solo, the obligato and cadenza, written specifically for the great Italian virtuoso. The press had announced this fact
beforehand and the composer was in the audience to hear him.
Gazzetta musicale di Milano wrote that the solo was «performed with
indisputable mastery by Cavallini»13.
This was a wonderful and deserved opportunity for the valiant concert artist, who, unlike his German counterparts, did not commission
any clarinet masterwork.
Figure 1 illustrates the concrete outcome of Cavallini the Inspirer:
the moving prelude for the clarinet at the beginning of Act Three written by Verdi for Cavallini.
Amongst the so–called minor nineteen–century Italian instrumental
music, Giacomo Panizza’s Ballabile con Variazioni for E–flat clarinet
deserves to be considered, representing probably the best example of
an instrumental piece inspired by Cavallini. Giacomo Panizza was
conductor at La Scala during the last thirteen years of Cavallini’s time
there, composing two operas and thirteen ballets for the theatre in Milan. The Ballabile con Variazioni is taken from the third Act of
Panizza’s Azione mimica (in five parts) Ettore Fieramosca, and it
represents a festa di ballo set in a magnificent banqueting hall14 .
The quick ten–note arpeggio at the end of each phrase, illustrated
in Figure 2 below, represents a clear example of the use of the clarinet
as a coloratura soprano.
12
Ernesto Cavallini, Virtuoso Clarinet Music: Sergio Bosi (clarinet), Riccardo Bartoli
(piano). Note by Piero Mioli; trans. By Candace Smith (Bongiovanni ed., 2000).
13
Pamela Weston, Yesterday’s Clarinettists: A Sequel, Yorkshire: Emerson edition, 2002,
pp. 51–53.
14
Giacomo Panizza, Ballabile e Variazioni nel ballo Ettore Fieramosca, Edition Lazarus,
London, 2000.
Cavallini the Inspirer
Figure 1. Cavallini the Inspirer: the famous third Act solo written by Verdi.
Figure 2. The use of the clarinet as a coloratura soprano.
29
Part 2
30
Although technically challenging, these runs must be performed in
a lyrical manner, trying to imitate a singer as the Estonian clarinettist,
Ivan Muller claimed:
you must, above all, concentrate on the melody, and to do this you must listen attentively to an accomplished singer and regard him as the best guide to
follow.
Cavallini’s vocal quality, already admired by Verdi, was not the
only aspect to inspire Panizza. Indeed, this Italian composer exploited
his brilliant first clarinettist’s virtuosity in most of his works. Figure 3
shows a common feature of nineteenth–century Italian clarinet repertoire: leaps over two octaves, between clarinet register and chalumeau.
From a technical viewpoint, this aspect was particularly challenging in
terms of regulating and controlling sound quality.
Furthermore, Figure 3 displays Cavallini’s technical wizardry: in
fact, these fast chromatic passages were almost impossible to play on
a rudimental instrument, which having fewer keys than a modern
clarinet, required quite an unusual and complex fingering15.
Figure 3. A common feature of 19th–century Italian clarinet repertoire.
15
This aspect will be discussed in detail in Part 3 devoted to Cavallini the Performer.
Cavallini the Inspirer
31
Since Panizza’s Ballabile con Variazioni embraces all the main distinctive features of the Italian tradition — vocal lyricism and virtuosity — and is probably the best solo work inspired by Cavallini, it deserves an important position within the clarinet literature, especially as
the only solo for E–flat clarinet generally known today.
So while in the central European tradition, a dual collaboration between composers and performers often led to the greatest clarinet masterworks, in Italy, Cavallini’s talent gave way to a one–to–many inspiration among the most outstanding nineteenth–century Italian operatic
composers.
As a result, according to Pamela Weston (1977), Verdi wrote all his
big clarinet solos within his operas with Cavallini in mind16, and the
latter achieved his popularity in the musical style, which completely
dominated the musical world of nineteenth–century Italy.
16
Weston, op. cit., pp. 68–69.
32
Part 2
Part 3
Cavallini the Performer
Music expresses that which cannot
be said and on which it is impossible to be silent.
Victor Hugo
According to Gandolfi (1887), «Ernesto Cavallini occupa un posto eminente tra i più notevoli concertisti di clarinetto che l’Italia ha
avuto in questo secolo»1 (Cavallini occupies an important position
amongst the clarinet’s greatest concert artists, which Italy produced
in this century).
He toured extensively around Europe and he went as far as Brazil,
receiving acclamation everywhere. Zaphir, the celebrated German
poet and journalist, after having heard the Italian virtuoso in Vienna,
wrote:
Italian newspapers, which exalted in many ways the high qualities of this artist, certainly did not exaggerate at all, because his execution is wonderful and
mature. No other performer could be compared to him, especially if considering Cavallini’s roundness, fullness and security of sound2.
1
Riccardo Gandolfi, Appunti intorno al clarinetto ad uso delle scuole del R. Istituto musicale di Firenze , Florence: Cocci ed., 1887, p. 12.
2
Zaphir, cited in Fabrizio Meloni, Il Clarinetto, Milan: Zecchini Editore, 2000, p. 109.
33
34
Part 3
At this point, it is worth analyzing two main aspects to grasp a
deeper understanding of this facet of Cavallini’s figure: 1. the mechanical development of the clarinet; 2. the use of the clarinet in the
orchestra. The mechanical development of the clarinet, and its relationship with the rise of virtuosi will firstly be discussed to show that
while in Europe there was a common tendency towards mechanical
improvement of the clarinet, nineteenth–century Italy was quite isolated from this phenomenon. Nevertheless, this fact did not impede
the rise of Italian clarinet virtuosi. Secondly, by looking at the use of
the clarinet in the orchestra, it will be possible to point out how the
art of transposing enabled the Italian clarinettist to perform the orchestral repertoire on one clarinet, totally omitting the use of the A
clarinet.
In particular, a brief European organological overview will precede
a more detailed analysis of the nineteenth–century Italian scenario. By
1800, the clarinet had achieved six keys (similarly to the instrument
used by Anton Stadler (1753–1812), who won from Mozart the quintet and the concerto), although more elaborate instruments were no
doubt available. In fact, during the first decade of the nineteenth century, makers slowly added keys to the common five–or six– key instrument and, therefore, after 1810, seven–, eight–, ten–, eleven–,
twelve–key clarinets gained in popularity.
The Russian–born musician and maker Ivan Muller (1786–1854)
made the most important and significant modifications to classical design during the first and second decades of the nineteenth–century.
According to Gandolfi (op. cit., p. 5):
Soltanto nel 1812 Ivan Muller, sintetizzando i tentativi isolati dei suoi predecessori, immaginò un metodico e completo sistema di chiavi per dare alle
note della scala una intonazione sufficientemente sonora e posizioni relativamente facili; molte note si possono cosi avere con diverse posizioni, facilitando l’esecuzione nei toni con molti accidenti. (Only in 1812, Iwan Muller, embracing all the isolated attempts by his forerunners, imagined a methodical and complete key–system to give all the notes of the scale a sufficiently loud intonation and relatively easy positions; many notes can be
played with different positions, making the execution in the key with many
accidentals easier).
Cavallini the Performer
35
Ivan Muller’s thirteen–keyed clarinet was promoted in 1812 as omnitonic: a clarinet that would play in all tonalities, thus eliminating the
need for corps dè rechange3.
Finally, the instrument that we use and know today as the Boehm
system was devised by the clarinettist Hyacinthe Klosè (1808–1880)
with the maker Auguste Buffet jeune, and was first exhibited in 18434.
Therefore, the nineteenth–century European scenario was pretty much
characterized by a tendency towards mechanical developments and
improvements.
In France, the clarinet production by nineteenth–century makers increased dramatically by the 1820s when the clarinet was widely
played in bands and orchestras. Paris was the leading music centre and
the widest variety was produced, ranging from baroque 3–key to the
13–keyed clarinet. However, the French tendency towards innovation
can be shown by the fact that Berlioz (1803–1869) welcomed the increased sophistication of mechanism:
The manufacture of these instruments, which remained for so long in its infancy, is nowadays in a state of progress which cannot fail to bring the most
valuable results5.
Similar was the situation in England, where a tremendous activity
of a number of English makers was all located in London. Keys began
to be added to the typical English six–keyed clarinet during the first
decade of the nineteenth–century, a development that can be traced
through tutors of the time. In 1826, the well–known clarinettist, Thomas Willman (?–1840) wrote a thorough tutor for the advanced and
professional player with a fingering chart and an explanation concerning the 13 key clarinets6. The Albert–system 13–keyed clarinet was
the most popular instrument at the time, and was truly overtaken in
popularity by the Boehm system only in 1930s7.
3
Rice, op. cit., p. 14.
Lawson, op. cit., p. 28.
5
Colin Lawson, The Early Clarinet A Practical Guide, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2000, p. 30.
6
Rice, op. cit., p. 47.
7
Lawson, 2000, p. 26.
4
Part 3
36
Nineteenth–century repertoire as a whole dictates an interest in
German clarinets. Therefore, the composer–virtuoso collaboration led
not only to clarinet masterworks8, but also to mechanical innovations,
which permitted to overtake the technical demands of the new challenging repertoire. This was the case of the composer L. Spohr (1784–
1859), who promoted a more complicated clarinet: in the introduction
to the 1812 edition of his Clarinet Concerto n. 1, he lists the improvements suggested by J. Simon Hermestedt (1778–1846) and emphasizes that his highly technical concerto could not be properly performed without these amendments9. Hermestedt had already constructed something similar to Muller’s design, as he performed upon
an elaborated 13–keyed clarinet, fitted with tuning–slides between the
joints and with an ivory barrel10, whilst the great Heinrich Baermann
(1784–1847) graduated via 10–keys to a 12–keyed instrument for
Weber’s (1786–1826) solo work11.
Nineteenth–century Italy, instead, had a quite unique situation. On
the one hand, Italian makers started producing clarinets quite late in
comparison with the rest of Europe (at this time instruments were imported from Austria and Germany); on the other hand, the Italian
clarinet tradition originated in the late eighteenth–century with the
Scuola Palermitana12.
According to Meloni13, «nel 1756 venne istituita la prima classe di
clarinetto presso il Collegio Musicale del Buon Pastore affidata al maestro Raffaele Aquila» (in 1756, Raffaele Aquila was the first teacher
of the first clarinet class, established at the Collegio Musicale del
Buon Pastore).
It is important to say that the lack of organological sources, mainly
due to the frequent wars, represents quite an obstacle in describing the
situation in nineteenth–century Italy. Therefore, through a brief analy-
8
As mentioned in Part 2.
Rice, op. cit., p. 40.
10
In Geoffrey Rendall, The Clarinet — Some notes on its history and construction, revised by Philip Bate, London: Ernest Benn Limited, 1971, p. 93.
11
Lawson, 2000, p. 27.
12
Sicilian clarinet school based in the city of Palermo.
13
Meloni, op. cit., p. 95.
9
Cavallini the Performer
37
sis of the three main Italian clarinet schools, it will be possible to point
out the main organological differences and similarities between Central Europe and Italy.
3.1 Main Organological Differences And Similarities Between
Central Europe And Italy
In contrast with the rest of Europe, the general Italian tendency was
quite conservative towards the introduction of more technological instruments. There were three main schools of clarinet playing in nineteenth century Italy, namely:
1.
2.
3.
Scuola Napoletana (Neapolitan school)
Scuola Bolognese (Bolognese school)
Scuola Milanese (Milanese School).
The main features of the Neapolitan clarinet school were: the art of
transposing, which will be discussed later in this Part and the reed–
above embouchure, which will be dealt with in Part 5 concerning
Cavallini the Instructor.
Both quite influential in the nineteenth–century northern Italian
musical life, the Milanese and Bolognese schools represent two opposite poles from an organological viewpoint: Backwardness (Milanese),
Progressiveness (Bolognese).
Domenico Liverani (1805–1876) represented the most influential figure of the Bolognese school. He was an excellent performer, also visiting London and Paris. In 1835, he was appointed
professor at the Liceo14 Rossini in Bologna and he was a close
friend of Rossini himself: Liverani and Rossini corresponded
regularly, Rossini addressing him Caro Menghino (Weston, 2002:
103). He occupies an important role in the nineteenth–century Italian clarinet scenario as he was the introducer of the Boehm system
14
Liceo is a type of Italian secondary school.
Part 3
38
to Italy15, and so was the most European among the Italian clarinet
virtuosi of his time.
Arguably, the most influential alongside with the Neapolitan
school, the Milanese School was founded by Benedetto Carulli
(1797–1877), who was professor at the Milan Conservatoire from
1827–1871. His most famous pupils Ernesto Cavallini (1807–1874)
and Romeo Orsi (1849–1918) continued to raise the already high
level of the Milan clarinet tradition, regardless of the surprising
backwardness of the Milanese school. In fact, although at the time
the Lyonese and German makers were exporting clarinets with
many more than six keys to Italy16, Cavallini was always master of
his instrument and his wizardry was displayed on a simple instrument of yellow boxwood with only six keys17. This fact surprised
the Viennese audience to whom Cavallini performed in 1839. At
the time, indeed, great German virtuosi like Baermann and
Hermested were forced to adopt more sophisticated instruments
(twelve and thirteen keys) to face the works by Weber and Spohr
and, elsewhere, the famous Finnish clarinet virtuoso Berhnard
Crusell (1775–1838) needed an eleven–keyed instrument to perform his own clarinet concertos (op.1, 5, 11). Instead, the writer
Francesco Antolini was completely adverse to this mechanical development, claiming that the increasing number of keys affected the
timbre of the instrument18.
But what is the difference between a 6–keyed and a 13–keyed
clarinet?
15
Rendall, op. cit., p. 113. Note: the Boehm system (1843) is the most popular clarinet
used nowadays; therefore it represented the climax to the clarinet development at the time,
making life much easier to 19th century clarinettists.
16
Ibis, p. 112.
17
Ibis, p. 112.
18
Francesco Antolini, La retta maniera di scrivere per il clarinetto ed altri strumenti a fiato, Milan: Buccinelli ed., 1813.
Cavallini the Performer
39
The indispensable six keys, reading downwards from the mouthpiece, would be: the speaker, a’ key, c’ sharp key, and on the lower
joint the open key for e, the f sharp and a flat/ g sharp keys.
Figure 4 illustrates a 6–keyed clarinet.
Figure 4. Features of a 6–keyed clarinet.
40
Part 3
Instead, Figure 5 shows an example of a 13–keyed clarinet, whose
improvements were claimed by Ivan Muller. Details are given on the
seven additional keys.
Figure 5. An example of a 13–keyed clarinet.
Cavallini the Performer
41
The additions and modifications to the key–work of the clarinet
that were made during the nineteenth–century had several distinct purposes. Keys were added to:
— facilitate trills, that were otherwise virtually impossible;
— enable complex chromatic passages to be played more fluently
and/or with better intonation;
— render the tone of adjacent notes more even;
— enable the instrument to play more loudly (Lawson, 1995: 25).
Among these improvements, it is worth drawing attention to the introduction of the e’ flat/ d’ sharp key on the top joint of the clarinet.
On the one hand, according to Rendall (op. cit., p. 93), without a key
this note hardly existed; on the other, Cavallini was frequently and
normally playing this note on his six–keyed clarinet, as can be shown
in Figure 6.
For this reason, although the increasing number of keys enlarged
and expanded the technical possibilities of the clarinet, Cavallini, instead, was in concurrence with his contemporaries as well as his
Figure 6. Examples of the e’ flat/ d’ sharp key played by Cavallini on his six–keyed
clarinet.
Part 3
42
predecessors in the belief that many keys and holes on a clarinet were
deleterious to both tone and intonation19.
Nevertheless, he was able to cope with the demanding repertoire he
was composing, which is still challenging to perform nowadays on a
modern clarinet. Elwart, commenting on Cavallini’s concert in Paris,
wrote: «an artist of skilful and mellow performance, his quality of
sound was extremely beautiful. He was very well received by the
Conservatoire public, who do not like instrumental solos much»20.
In this way, Cavallini deserves to be considered amongst the highest clarinet virtuosi of all the time, not only for his technical wizardry,
but also because he was the symbol of the Italian tradition.
Another aspect pointing out a supreme musicianship of the nineteenth–century Italian clarinet school is the use of the clarinet in the
orchestra.
The clarinet was quite late in entering the orchestra and during the
1750s acted primarily as an optional instrument, replaceable by the
oboe or flute; the earliest symphonies that included it were three by
Johann Stamitz (1717–1757). The clarinet status did not markedly improve until Mozart’s symphonies of 1780s; it was only through Beethoven, however, that the clarinet finally achieved parity with the flute
and the oboe due to the composers’ memorable lyric solos and technically adroit passages21.
The rise of the clarinet was similar in nineteenth–century Italy,
where it became an extremely popular solo instrument and composers
used it to support or substitute the voice in the operatic performances.
The Early German Romantic composers Weber and Spohr, instead,
showed a great leaning towards the low register of the instrument,
which became particularly used in German and French orchestral music of the time as can be seen in Figure 7.
By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the normal orchestral
instruments consisted in A, B–flat and C clarinets, which amongst
them could cover a substantial portion of the tonalities then in com19
Cfr. Richard K. Weerts, Early Virtuosi of the Clarinet and Their Contributions, 1956,
available at www.clarinet.org/journal/Anthology/1964–10–Weerts.asp. (accessed 17 January
2007).
20
Weston, 1977, pp. 68–69.
21
Rice, op.cit., p. 174.
Cavallini the Performer
43
mon use22; usually in flat keys the parts were written for the B–flat instrument while in the sharp keys for the A.
However, the use of the A clarinet in the orchestra represented
quite an unusual phenomenon, which was quite varied amongst countries and schools. Italy (alongside Spain) represented an isolated tradition in comparison with the nineteenth–century European scenario.
Although Ivan Muller claimed to have invented an omnitonic 13–
keyed clarinet (1812), the general tendency across Europe was still
towards the differentiation in sound and color between the A clarinet
(proper au genre pastoral) and the B–flat clarinet (proper au genre
pathetiquè)23.
Besides, the use of the A (C) clarinet had also a merely technical reason as the celebrated English clarinetist Henry Lazarus (1815–1895)
claimed in his tutor (1881): «those various pitched clarinets (A, B–
flat, C) are made so as to avoid writing music in keys which would
render the fingering extremely difficult were there only one clarinet,
and not for the change of timbre, as many think»24.
Completely different was the situation in certain countries — Italy
and Spain — where the A clarinet was almost completely dispensed,
and every part was transposed at sight (reading a semitone lower) on
Figure 7. An example of the French and German use of the low register of the instrument as in Weber’s 1st concerto (music edition, 1994).
22
Lawson, 1995, p. 34.
These were terms used by adjudicators in the competition held at the Paris Conservatoire. Cited in Lawson, op. cit., p. 34.
24
Henry Lazarus, Cited in Lawson, op. cit., p. 34.
23
Part 3
44
the B–flat instrument. Particularly, Italian clarinettists claimed that
this was the logical thing to do since one instrument could better be
kept in tune through a performance than two25.
A celebrated exponent of this practice was Ernesto Cavallini, who,
alongside his Italian colleagues, managed the A parts perfectly well,
and one could never notice an accident on account of the formidable
transposition. This practice demonstrated an Italian superior musicianship, in comparison with their European counterparts, and located
Italy in an original and high rank in the European context. Furthermore, the use of the reed–above embouchure gave the nineteenth–
century Italian clarinet school a major distinctiveness and uniqueness26.
In conclusion, an in–depth analysis of Cavallini as a performer has
led us to identify and appreciate the distinctive qualities of the three
main Italian clarinet schools of his time. An overview of these schools
has been necessary to grasp an understanding of the nineteenth–
century situation in Italy, which would otherwise appear difficult to
describe, given the lack of organological sources due to socio–
political events. In particular, the analysis has revealed the main organological differences and similiarities between Central Europe and
Italy. In addition, each school has been seen to convey its own distinctive traits. Whether dealing with the art of transposition, the reed–
above embouchure (Neapolitan school), the use of the 6–keyed clarinet typical of Cavallini and the Milanese school or conveying an evident sign of European progressiveness as the Bolognese school, it can
easily be claimed that there is an Italian superior musicianship in the
European scenario. This is even more evident if we consider the lack
of mechanical improvement of the clarinet in Italian manufacturing
processes and the role played by the clarinet in the orchestra.
To explore further features of distinctiveness and uniqueness of the
Italian clarinet tradition, it is worth now analyzing some of Cavallini’s
output, contextualising it to examine another facet of his versatility,
namely his compositions.
25
Anthony Baines, Woodwind instruments and their history, London: Faber and Faber
Limited, 1962, p. 119.
26
See Part 5 on Cavallini the Instructor for this point.
Part 4
The Composer
Nothing pleases the composer so
much as to have people disagree as
to the movements of his piece that
they liked the best. If there is
enough disagreement, it means that
everyone liked something best–
which is just what the composer
wants to hear. The fact that this
might include parts that no one
liked never seems to matter.
Aaron Copland
Besides being one of the greatest clarinet virtuoso, Ernesto Cavallini was also a prolific composer of nineteenth–century Italy, leaving a
legacy of original works for the clarinet. Although he is chiefly remembered for his brilliant Trenta Capricci1 (music edition, 1994), he
composed numerous études, short pieces for clarinet and piano, duets
as well as two concertos for clarinet and orchestra2.
According to Gandolfi (1887: 12):
considerata la deficienza che si deplora nella musica per gli strumenti a fiato,
il Cavallini può dirsi uno dei pochi che abbia composto alcuni pezzi allo
1
2
For further discussion on Cavallini’s Thirty Caprices, see Part 5.
Weerts, op. cit.
45
Part 4
46
strumento, ed in pari tempo non privi di valore artistico, oltre un lavoro
d’incontrastabile utilità quale la collezione di studi per clarinetto, adottati da
tutte le migliori scuole (Considering the deficiency of music for woodwind
instruments, Cavallini can be said to be one of the few to have composed some works for the instrument, which at the same time are full of artistic value,
besides an undoubtedly useful masterwork such as the collection of studies
for clarinet [30 Capricci], adopted by all the best schools).
Thus, the aim of this Part is to consider and discuss Cavallini’s
output for three main reasons:
1.
2.
3.
first and foremost, to illustrate the variety of musical styles and
the enormous corpus of music composed by Cavallini;
to understand the underlying principles and reasons which led
Cavallini to compose his main works, comparing them with the
most significant nineteenth–century clarinet works in Europe;
to point out the specific features through which Cavallini mir
rors nineteenth–century Italian clarinet tradition.
4.1. Cavallini’s output
Research on the issue shows that to date there is no systematic catalogue of Cavallini’s compositions and yet the enormous corpus of music composed by the virtuoso allows us to group his production under
four main headings, namely:
1. Romances; 2. Fantasies; 3. Concertos; 4. Etudes.
In the rest of this Part, a brief overview of each sub–group will be
sketched in order to gain an understanding of the variety of Cavallini’s
musical styles. However, an overview of the fourth group, i.e. the
études, will be dealt with in Part 5 as this group of productions is particularly linked with Cavallini as the Instructor.
4.2. Romances
While in Russia, Cavallini published at least five albums of French
and Italian songs and this pattern, together with a rather more lyrical
style, is reflected in the clarinet pieces of his last years. Three albums
The Composer
47
for clarinet and piano were published after his return to Italy, each
containing six pieces3. Generally descriptive and sentimental pieces,
they were regularly titled or referred to by terms which were typical of
chamber music of the time.
In this sense, particularly interesting are:
La Calma – Romanza Senza Parole (The Calm – Romanza without
words) (music edition, 1999), which opens the third album;
Adagio Sentimentale – Una lagrima sulla tomba dell’immortale
Rossini (A tear on immortal Rossini’s grave) (music edition, 1989),
which is the last piece of the second album.
Both titles anticipate the main musical elements of these works: the
melodic lyricism, expressed in a natural and comfortable way by the
clarinet, due to its vocal qualities.
Figure 8 provides an example of how Cavallini expressed the main
elements of his Romances.
Figure 8. The main musical elements of Cavallini’s Romances.
3
The Italian Clarinettist: Colin Bradbury (clarinet), Oliver Davies (piano). Note by Pamela Weston and Oliver Davies, 1983.
Part 4
48
4.3. Fantasias
Particularly popular amongst the nineteenth century virtuosi, fantasias were usually compositions characterized by an alternation of virtuosistic passages and vocal lines, often influenced by operas or folk
music. Figure 9 illustrates an example taken from a fantasia.
The opportunity to listen to the most famous arias composed by
Verdi, Rossini, Donizetti and so forth, in a domestic environment,
was undoubtedly the main reason for the enormous success that fantasias had in the nineteenth century. According to Weerts, Cavallini’s compositions were all written, bearing in mind the end result of
expressing his own virtuosity4. For this reason, all of his compositions are full of scales, arpeggios and quick runs always pushing the
boundaries of the performer. If for instance, Cavallini’s Fiori Rossiniani (music edition, 1988) is examined, it is possible to identify and
point out some similarities with Spohr’s second concerto (music edition, 1965) as in Figure 10.
On the one hand, it is worth noting that Cavallini’s example is in
b flat major (c major for a b–flat clarinet); on the other hand, that
Spohr’s extract embraces a large number of accidentals, thus appearing more demanding from a technical viewpoint. However, it is also
necessary to make a comparison from an instrumental point of view.
Figure 9. An example of a fantasia.
4
Weerts, op. cit.
The Composer
49
indicated in Figure 10 enlarged more the technical boundaries of the
clarinet. If both extracts were to be approached from a modern clarinet
viewpoint, it is doubtlessly evident that Spohr’s example would be the
most difficult to perform.
However, if the diversity of the instruments employed by the two
great virtuosi is taken into account, then it is possible to claim that
Cavallini’s mastery was at least at the same level of his German counterparts. Ultimately, this fact significantly symbolizes the high standard of the Italian clarinet tradition.
4.4. Concertos
Cavallini wrote his two clarinet concertos in two different periods
of his life. The first concerto in E–flat major was composed in 1845,
while the second concerto in C minor was written in 1852, during
Cavallini’s period in Russia. Firstly performed at La Scala, the first
concerto is divided in three movements:
1.
2.
3.
Allegro;
a lyrical and operatic Adagio;
Allegro finale based on virtuosistic variations.
Figure 10. A comparison between Cavallini’s Fiori Rossiniani and Spohr’s second
concerto.
Part 4
50
In particular, it is possible to notice how the third variation of the
last movement embraces one of the main features of Cavallini’s style:
a rapid change in tessitura through a series of two and a half octave
leaps as shown in the example in Figure 115.
On the other hand, it is also worth considering Cavallini’s second
concerto in c minor. Indeed, if this work is attentively analyzed, it is
possible to see how Cavallini’s style reflects the main tendencies of
his time throughout Europe. In particular, Cavallini’s second concerto
appears to be the one which, more than others, can be closely aligned
to the models introduced by the leading clarinet composer in Europe,
namely, the German Carl Maria von Weber. At the time, Weber’s
concertos were highly acclaimed and characterized by long melodic
line, usually inspired by opera.
Figure 11. An example of one of the main features of Cavallini’s concerto style.
5
See also Cavallini the Instructor on this point.
The Composer
51
Figure 12 provides a sample of Cavallini’s European style easily
identified in his second concerto in c minor.
Besides the long melodic lines which are a common feature of both
clarinet composers, Cavallini’s concerto was equally full of vocal lyricism as shown in the example in Figure 13.
Figure 12. An example of Cavallini’s European style.
Figure 13. An example of Cavallin’s vocal lyricism.
Part 4
52
Overall, Cavallini’s compositions were characterized by demanding virtuosistic passages, as well as by long melodic lines, reflecting,
in this way, the nineteenth–century Italian clarinet tradition.
On the issue, Michael Stegemann wrote:
In Italy composers seem to have been fascinated by the clarinet’s cantabile
properties, related to the human voice, as well as its virtuoso agility6.
For this reason, Cavallini was not only in concurrence with the
main European clarinet composers (e.g. Spohr, Weber), but he was
most probably also a leading figure, mirroring the Italian clarinet tradition of his time.
Furthermore, the use of rapid changes in tessitura appears to be the
main stylistic feature in nineteenth–century Italy. Indeed, Cavallini
made a common use of it due to another distinguishing feature,
namely the use of the reed–above embouchure. In practical terms, this
can be explained by the fact that the reed–above embouchure accommodated such big leaps reasonably easily as illustrated in Figure 14.
In Part 4, a detailed analysis of Cavallini the Composer has led to
an understanding of the variety of his musical styles and to learning
about the existence of an enormous corpus of music he composed. The
reasons which led Cavallini to compose his main works have also
Figure 14. Cavallini’s use of rapid changes in tessitura.
6
Rossini, G. Variazioni and Introduzione, Tema e Variazioni, Sabine and Wolfang Meyer
(clarinets), Wuttembergisches Mammerorchester Helibron. Cd Booklet notes by M. Stegemann, trans. Clive Williams: (Emi Classics 7493972, 1988)
The Composer
53
been tackled and some sample extracts have been comparatively analyzed with significant samples from the main nineteenth–century clarinet works in Europe.
Moreover, through his distinctive and unique features, Cavallini
appears to emblematically reflect the nineteenth–century Italian clarinet tradition. This is particularly true of the practice of the reed–above
embouchure, of which Cavallini was one of the main exponents.
Compared to its northern counterparts who used the reed–below embouchure, the Italian clarinet tradition managed to develop distinctiveness and originality thanks to this particular practice. This distinctiveness was particularly manifested in the Italian clarinet tradition in
pedagogical terms and can be significantly represented through the
last of Cavallini’s eclectic facets, namely that of the Instructor which
is at the core of Part 5.
54
Part 4
Part 5
The Instructor
I always loved music, who so has
skill in this art is of a good temperment, fitted for all things. We
must teach music in schools; a
schoolmaster ought to have skill in
music, or I would not regard him;
neither should we ordain young
men as preachers unless they have
been well excercised in music.
Martin Luther
At long, Cavallini was completely absorbed by his dual role of performer and composer. Nevertheless, he was a valid instructor, becoming the first clarinet professor at the new–established conservatoire in
St. Petersburg in 1862.
Indeed, an analysis of his compositions provides a clear understanding that his pedagogical activity can be captured through his
Thirty Caprices, one of the greatest contributions to the clarinet literature, as termed by Ceminara1.
Organized in five groups of six studies each, Cavallini’s Thirty Caprices were firstly printed in 1836 by the editor F. Lucca in Milan.2
They embrace related keys to the b–flat clarinet (c, b flat, e flat and a
1
2
In Weerts, op. cit.
Cfr. D’Alessandro, 1998.
55
Part 5
56
flat major) and they truly represent concert–pieces, although under the
form of studies. As mentioned in Part 4, the use of rapid changes in
tessitura was the main stylistic feature in nineteenth–century Italy and
Cavallini’s Thirty Caprices are a concrete example of this practice.
Thus from a general viewpoint, Cavallini wrote his composition to
express his own virtuosity; his Thirty Caprices, instead, were not only
an expression of virtuosity, but they also had a pedagogical role in exploiting the reed–above embouchure to accommodate rapid changes in
tessitura3. In 1870, Cavallini was appointed deputy professor at the
Milan conservatoire, where he continued to promote the reed–above
tradition of the Milanese School4.
At this point, to delve deeper into Cavallini’s pedagogical side, it is
necessary to go into further details on the functional role of the reed–
above embouchure.
Despite the fact that most eighteenth– and nineteenth–century writers considered the embouchure to be the basis of the art of wind playing, its history appears still unexplored in its fullness.
During the early development of the clarinet, players had two reed
positions from which to choose: although the reed–below represents
the only kind of embouchure in practice nowadays, it would not be
professional to ignore the evident alternative possibility of the reed–
above embouchure.
In this view, it is worth sketching a brief overview of the nineteenth–century European situation regarding the clarinet embouchure.
Subsequently, a more detailed analysis of nineteenth–century Italy
will follow.
Although most eighteenth–century clarinettists played with the reed
placed against the upper lip, the reed–below position became more
popular throughout Europe during the late eighteenth– and early nineteenth century, thanks to the influence of German virtuoso players5.
Even if Frohlich recommended the reed–above embouchure as more
suited to chest articulation and better able to facilitate alternation be3
In Ingrid Elizabeth Pearson, The Reed–above Embouchure: Fact or Fallacy?, Australian
Clarinet and Saxophone vol. 2.2, 1999, p. 9.
4
Cfr. Main organological differences and similarities between Central Europe and Italy in
Part 3.
5
Rice, op. cit., p. 86.
The Instructor
57
tween registers of the clarinet6, the important German virtuoso and
teacher Franz Tausch (1762–1817) exclusively used the reed–below
mouthpiece position and so did his students; amongst them the well–
known virtuosi and composers Bernhard Crusell (1775–1838) and
Heinrich Baermann deserve to be remembered. For them, the reed–
above embouchure was simply wrong 7.
Furthermore, the clarinettist and inventor Ivan Muller strongly advocated the reed–below position in his method (1812). While Germany was completely absorbed by the reed–below position, the
French school of the reed–above playing was probably founded by Joseph Beer (1744–1812).
Fetis claimed that «the German clarinettists are incontestably superior to the French»8, showing clearly his view against the reed–above
embouchure and continued further:
Our inferiority in this genre is due to a vicious system that our clarinettists
have adopted as far as the position of the reed in the mouth, where force is
applied to the reeds9.
This criticism may have prompted most French players to adopt the
German reed–below position and tone production; it has been suggested, in fact, that Beer himself assisted in the proliferation of the
reed–below embouchure10 .
The situation was completely different in Italy, where the reed–
above embouchure survived the longest. Such was its popularity in
Southern Italy that it became known as La Scuola Napoletana11.
James Collis (1954–55: 25–27) reports that the reed–above embouchure was still practised in Italy in the 1950s, more than a century
later than the first evidence of such practice had been reported in Italy.
The earliest Italian mention of the reed–above position can be found
in the anonymous Metodo facilissimo per imparare a ben suonare il
6
In Lawson, 2000, p. 45.
Ibis p. 45.
8
Fetis, cit. in Rice, op.cit., p. 87.
9
Ibis, p. 87.
10
Pearson, op. cit., p. 9.
11
Ibis, p. 9.
7
Part 5
58
Clarinetto, published in Florence between 1810 and 182012. Evidence
of a Golden Age of the reed–above playing can be found in nineteenth–century Italian tutors, particularly those of Neapolitan players.
According to Sebastiani (1855:7):
È necessario che si dimostri quale sia il miglior metodo di tenere in bocca il
becco, o coll’ancia da sopra o da sotto. Io mi sono persuaso piuttosto di usarlo coll’ancia da sopra e ne ho ragioni convincentissime. È chiaro che la parte
dell’ancia è quella piu’ debole del becco, perciò bisogna raccomandarla alla
parte piu’ forta delle labbra, che certamente è la superiore piu’ stabile e non
soggetta a movimento alcuno. È chiaro ancora quanta importanza abbia nel
suono del clarinetto la punta della lingua, la quale piu’ naturalmente e con
piu’ celerità si slancia in alto che in basso. Perciò con l’ancia da sotto non si
potrebbe ottenere altro che il solo battuto, e non mai il picchettato, lo staccato
ed altre specie di coloriti di esecuzione che formano il pregio del clarinetto.
Finalmente l’ancia produce il suono con le sue oscillazioni, e queste allora
riescono più sonore quando non sono inceppate da veruno ostacolo: se è situata da sopra l’ancia ha tutto il cavo del palato ove senza impedimento alcuno può oscillare (It is necessary to demonstrate which is the best type of embouchure, with the reed–above or below. I am persuaded in using the reed–
above embouchure for a series of convincing reasons. It is clear that the reed
is the most delicate part of the mouthpiece, so it requires a careful control
from the strongest part of the lips, which is certainly the upper for its stability
since it does not move. It is also clear how important the tip of the tongue is
in the production of the clarinet sound; it moves more naturally and rapidly
towards the top rather than towards the bottom. So with the reed–below it
would be possible to obtain only the battuto, but never picchettato, staccato
and other types of colours, which constitute the prestige of the clarinet. Finally, the reed produces the sound through its vibrations, and these are bigger
and louder when they do not have any kind of obstacles, as in the case of the
reed–above embouchure, where the reed has all the cavity of the palate to vibrate freely) .
Indeed, Ferdinando Sebastiani (1803–1860) was the founder of the
Neapolitan school, as well as a great clarinet virtuoso, who taught at
the Conservatorio di San Pietro in Maiella in Naples. He included
twenty–four studies for clarinet con accompagnamento di un secondo
in tutti i toni e loro relativi in his method for clarinet.
12
Ibis, p. 9.
The Instructor
59
Sebastiani’s viewpoint can be easily understood through the image
of the embouchure position illustrated in Figure 15.
In particular, the upper part of study n. 3 is remarkable for the extremity of its virtuosity demands, primarily made by articulation and
Figure 15. Sebastiani’s viewpoint of the embouchure position.
60
Part 5
its interaction with tessitura. This virtuosity demand is illustrated in
Figure 16.
Beginning with paired staccato octave leaps between upper chalumeau and clarinet, and clarinet and altissimo registers, Sebastiani then
augments the leaps, adding a low chalumeau turn like embellishment
as in Figure 17.
As part of Sebastiani’s pedagogical method, this study is a pertinent example of the virtuosity unique to mid–nineteenth century reed–
Figure 16. The upper part of Sebastiani’s study n. 3.
Figure 17. Sebastiani’s augments of the leaps.
The Instructor
61
above practitioners of La Scuola Napoletana, and more in general to
nineteenth–century Italy.
Overall, on the one hand, the rest of Europe was almost completely
influenced by the German reed–below embouchure; on the other,
nineteenth–century Italy produced an amazing number of reed–above
virtuosi such as Sebastiani, Ferdinando Busoni and Cavallini.
In particular, Busoni reinforced the popularity of the Italian
reed–above embouchure towards the end of the nineteenth–
century, since his method Scuola di Perfezionamento was written
in 1883. Ferdinando Busoni (1834–1909), father of the well–
known composer Ferruccio, was a clarinettist of significant merit,
whose playing his son later described as «combining the virtuosity
of a violinist with the beauty and sensitiveness of the old Italian
bel canto»13.
In his Scuola di Perfezionamento per il clarinetto (1883), Busoni
claimed:
Il labbro superiore, piu’ debole e piu’ elastico, facilita ad agevolmente ottenere dolcezza di timbro, giusta intonazione, inflessione di voce, eguaglianza di
suoni e contribuisce anche sugli effetti del colorito, della modulazione e
dell’accento (The upper lip is by nature weaker and therefore more elastic
than the lower: two qualities, which assist both in obtaining a mellow timbre,
pure intonation, flexibility of the voice, delicacy in shading and in producing
the most astonishing effects in expression and modulation).
In fact, Cavallini was one of the forerunners of this pedagogical
tradition as his Thirty Caprices, dated 1836, represent one of the earliest methods written specifically for the reed–above embouchure, almost twenty years earlier then Sebastiani’s method.
Amongst the Thirty Caprices, it is interesting to point out how n. 1,
3, 4, 5, 11, 12, 20, 21, 23, 24, 28, 29, 30 specifically require demands
which are similar in terms of articulation and breath control to Sebastiani’s examples. This feature can be seen in Figure 18.
In addition, by considering Caprice n. 19, it is possible to point out
similarities based on articulation and tessitura leaps between the example
provided by Cavallini and the writing in Rossini’s Introduction, Theme
13
Edward J. Dent, Ferruccio Busoni, A Biography, London, 1932, R/1974, p. 4.
Part 5
62
and Variations (music edition, 1960). This is particularly observable
when comparing an extract from Cavallini’s work shown in Figure 19
and the extract taken from Rossini’s variation 2 as in Figure 20.
In fact, in this concertante work, Rossini used small scale slurring
of the chalumeau writing and staccato marks on the uppermost notes
of each paired leaps in a similar way to Cavallini, who, for paired intervals in excess of one octave, marked each note staccato, allowing
for ease of articulation14.
Figure 18. Cavallini’s demands in terms of articulation and breath control similar to
Sebastiani’s examples.
Figure 19. An extract from Cavallini’s Caprice n. 19 indicating similarities of articulation and tessitura leaps with Rossini’s work.
14
Pearson, op. cit., pp. 10–11.
The Instructor
63
In this way, completely integrated into the Italian musical scenario
of his time, Cavallini can rightly be defined as one of the greatest Italian clarinet instructors. As Solera claims: «I componimenti del Cavallini addestrano l’allievo al colpo di lingua, alla messa di voce, alla legatura, alla scala semitonata, insomma a tutte le ricchezze dello strumento»15 (Cavallini’s compositions prepare students to the staccato,
sound production, legato, chromatic scale, to all the richness of the instrument).
Figure 20. An extract from Rossini’s Variation 2 indicating similarities of articulation and tessitura leaps with Cavallini’s work.
15
Solera, cited In Meloni, op. cit., p. 109.
64
Part 5
Conclusions
Music is the movement of sound to
reach the soul for the education of
its virtue.
Plato
In this volume, case–study research on the outstanding figure of
Ernesto Cavallini has been presented. The study has been carried out
in the attempt to revaluate the Italian clarinet tradition and place it in
its true context within the European mainstream.
A detailed analysis of this great Italian virtuoso has been specifically undertaken with the purpose of shedding light on an issue which
is still currently underestimated, that is, Italy’s nineteenth–century
clarinettists’ surprising agility.
First and foremost, focus on this issue has fostered an exploratory
investigation of how such a high standard was attained, despite the
number of drawbacks faced by Italian clarinettists in comparison to
their northern counterparts. In the literature, the noticeable lagging–
behind of the Italian clarinet tradition has emerged. However, the case
study has debated that, despite the number of technical and mechanical variables which apparently hindered instrumental performance, the
technical and musical demands of the repertoire were brilliantly
achieved. First of all, this means that a detailed analysis of the distinctive and unique features of the Italian clarinet tradition has been crucial in order to understand how the musicians strived and managed to
reach such qualitative standards. Secondly, through an understanding
65
66
Conclusions
of the identified distinctive and unique features, it is feasible to question the widespread belief that the prestigious clarinet tradition is
commonly only associated with the countries of France and Germany.
Therefore, in tackling the issue of the importance of revaluating the
Italian clarinet tradition, giving it a noteworthy role in the European
mainstream, the case study has sought to substantiate this position
through one of the most significant exponents: Ernesto Cavallini.
In particular, the study has focussed on the eclectic figure of
Cavallini which best lends itself to the challenge of debating a number of issues which could, otherwise, create a possible divide between the European mainstream clarinet tradition and the less appreciated Italian one.
Specifically, research has shown that Cavallini’s versatile figure
opens a new debate on how the Italian clarinet tradition ought to be
ranked in the European context. It has purposedly subdivided Cavallini’s eclectism into four main components to investigate the heterogeneous aspects of Italian musical distinctiveness and identity. Ultimately, it has enabled a deeper and rounder understanding of the Italian clarinet scenario in the nineteenth century.
In Part 2 attention has been drawn to the facet of Cavallini as the
Inspirer. In analyzing the issue of Inspiration, the study has outlined
how the German tradition has been strongly based on composer–
virtuoso relationships, which saw the production of various clarinet
masterworks. However, this fact has been presently challenged. Indeed, the case study has argued and substantiated that, despite the lack
of Italian clarinet–masterworks, the Italian clarinet tradition has
equally achieved fruitful results. In fact, it found its parallel expression in the predominant genre of Italian Opera, where the clarinet was
employed in a core role, complementary to that of the prima donna.
Subsequently, the German composer–virtuoso partnerships, for instance, generated Mozart, Spohr and Weber’s concertos, whereas
Cavallini’s one–to–many partnerships reached equally high standards,
witnessed by memorable operatic clarinet solos written by Verdi, Rossini and Puccini.
Moreover, the need to acknowledge the Italian clarinet school at
European levels, equating it to the German and the French ones has
been debated and justified in Part 3. In particular, research carried out
Conclusions
67
on the main organological differences between Italy and Central
Europe has enabled us to gain insights into the conservative tendency
of the Italian clarinet school at the time. Against this background, it
has been possible to position the figure of Cavallini the Performer,
emphasizing how he substantiated the high virtuosity of nineteenth–
century Italian clarinettists. In particular, this objective has been attained through the exploitation and subsequent acknowledgement of
the additional value contributed by Cavallini as a performer. Indeed, it
has been pointed out how as an exponent of the Italian clarinet school
with its antiquated instruments, Cavallini encountered major difficulties and thus needed to strive more than his German and French colleagues to reach European standards. It is necessary, in fact, to recall
that, at the time, the main European clarinet virtuosi Hermstedt,
Baermann and Crusell were adopting 10–, 11–, 12–, 13–keyed clarinets. Conversely, Cavallini, and all the other Italian clarinettists of his
time, played on rudimental 6–keyed clarinets. Overall, this fact did not
impede him in becoming one of the greatest clarinettists of all times,
nor did it hinder the Italian clarinet school in achieving high standards
of virtuosity and musicianship. In addition, research on the use of the
clarinet in the orchestra has pointed out the high level of skilled
promptness and superiority in the art of transposition manifested by
Italian clarinettists. In contrast with the rest of their European colleagues, they could subsequently omit the A clarinet easily.
As the research unfolded the role of Cavallini as a composer in Part
4, interestingly, it has also drawn attention to part of the so–called minor clarinet repertoire. Rich in vocal and virtuosistic features which
best express the cantabile properties of the clarinet, the minor clarinet
repertoire is worth taking into more consideration. In fact, if this repertoire is more often performed nowadays, the chance is that not only
will it be extremely appreciated, but that the cantabile properties of
the clarinet will be increasingly acknowledged.
Furthermore, comparative research between some of Cavallini’s
output with Spohr’s concertos has led to a noteworthy consideration.
Research findings have shown that through their works, both composers pushed the boundaries of the performers. In turn, this broadened the technical possibilities of the clarinet. However, it is feasible
to pinpoint noticeable differences in terms of subsequent perform-
68
Conclusions
ance. In particular, in order to cope with the specific demands of
Spohr’s concertos, Hermstedt improved the standard clarinet, bringing it to thirteen keys. On the contrary, Cavallini introduced a distinctive Italian feature. Although composing merely to express high
virtuosity, and therefore pushing the limits of the performer, Cavallini did not require anything else than his old six–keyed yellow boxwood clarinet.
Thus through the case of Cavallini, it seems possible to claim that
the Italian nineteenth–century clarinet school achieved a superb standard, which can rightly be considered at the same levels of the German and the French traditions.
In addition, it is crucial to point out how such result was achieved.
Research has indicated that while the rest of Europe was completely
influenced by the German reed–below practice, Italian clarinettists
continued to adopt the reed–above embouchure. Although this latter
practice is no longer in use, it appears extremely amazing how this alternative manner of playing managed to attain such high levels of performance. Indeed, this fact is substantiated by the significant number
of reed–above clarinet virtuosi produced by nineteenth–century Italy.
Clearly marked by Cavallini, this feature made a significant contribution in shaping the distinctiveness of the Italian school.
As a consequence, it is worth emphasizing how the rapid changes
of tessitura were easily and frequently employed, becoming the predominant stylistic features of nineteenth–century Italian clarinet repertoire. In fact, it was possible to easily perform such big leaps, thanks
to the practice of the reed–above embouchure, which facilitated the
sound control across the different clarinet registers.
Moreover, research has shown how the practice of the reed–above
embouchure had a significant impact on instrumental teaching. Findings in Part 5 indicate that Cavallini’s Thirty Caprices, alongside with
Sebastiani’s method, were one of the main methodological sources to
promote the reed–above embouchure. The extent to which this practice characterized the Italian clarinet school can be witnessed by its
widespread pedagogical use in Italy until the 1950s.
In the field of music performance, the present case study can be
seen as an attempt to develop major awareness of the traditional artistic standards set by the European clarinet mainstream.
Conclusions
69
By analyzing the various facets of the eclectic figure of Cavallini,
the case study has highlighted those predominantly unique aspects of
this great musician who faithfully mirrored the nineteenth–century
Italian clarinet school. In debating how both Cavallini and the Italian
clarinet school of his time reveal distinctive, often unique features, the
study has substantially questioned the need to elevate the Italian tradition to the prestigiously renowned European levels alongside those of
France and Germany.
Ultimately, the case study has offered a multi–faceted perspective
of the greatness of Ernesto Cavallini and of the Italian clarinet tradition which ought to be kept in mind by all clarinettists who strive
daily to improve their performance skills and their level of artistry.
70
Conclusions
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Discography
Cavallini, Ernesto: Virtuoso clarinet music. Sergio Bosi (clarinet),
Riccardo Bartoli (piano), (San Giovanni in Marignano: Dongiovanni ed., 2000).
Rossini, Gioacchino: Variazioni & Introduzione, Tema e Variazioni,
Sabine and Wolfang Meyer, Wuttembergisches Kammerorchester
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Rossini y Espana, Joan Enric Lluna (clarinet), Nigel Clayton (piano),
Harmonia Mundi Hmi 987029 (2001).
The Italian Clarinettist, Colin Bradbury (clarinet), Oliver Davies (Piano), Academy Sound and Vision Ltd. (1983).
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available at: http://www.clarinet.org/journal/Anthology/1964–10–Weerts.asp.
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